Landing Distance Assessment in Flight
Landing Distance Assessment in Flight
In preparation for each landing, the Commander shall make an assessment of all relevant factors that increase risk; including wind, slope, runway surface condition, braking action, and aeroplane failures, in regard to the required runway length. The Commander must consider that runway surface conditions can degrade or improve significantly in very short periods of time dependent on precipitation, temperature, usage, and runway treatment, and could be significantly different than indicated by the last report. If conditions change between the time that this assessment is made and the time of landing, the Commander shall consider whether it would be safer to continue the landing or reassess the landing distance. The manufacturers actual (demonstrated/un-factored) landing distances used in the flight preparation phase to derive a required landing distance for dispatch, were determined by test pilots, in ideal conditions and using techniques very rarely used in line operations. Attempting to reproduce these distances in line operations, could result in an overrun. Hence the Commanders shall ensure that landing distance available (LDA) is always at least equal or higher than calculated actual landing distance (ALD) for given runway a
nd aeroplane conditions + 15% safety margin (to obtained factored distance), as recommended by FAA and EASA regulations.
Commencement and Continuation of an Approach
An instrument approach may be commenced regardless of the reported RVR/VIS but the approach shall not be continued beyond the outer marker, or equivalent position, if the reported RVR/VIS is less than the applicable landing minima. Where no outer marker or equivalent position exists, the Commander shall make the decision to continue or abandon the approach before descending below 1.000 ft AAL on the final approach segment. If, after passing the outer marker or equivalent position depicted on the Instrument Approach Chart, the reported RVR/VIS falls below the applicable minimum, the approach may be continued to DA(H) or MDA. A pilot may continue the approach below DA(H) or MDA and the landing may be completed provided that the required visual reference is established at the DA(H) or MDA and is maintained.
Where the State Approach Ban is more restrictive, the published State Approach Ban applies (refer to OM Part C).
Note: The equivalent position can be established by means of a DME, NDB or VOR or any other fix that independently establishes the position of the aeroplane, if published on the instrument approach chart. If none of the above is available then it is 1.000 ft AAL.
Positive Identification of Aerodromes
At certain locations the proximity of adjacent aerodromes, the presence of multiple runways, or the proximity of highways paralleling a runway, may create confusion and result in a landing at the wrong aerodrome or on the wrong runway, especially in darkness or conditions of reduced visibility. In order to preclude such an incident which may have serious consequences, Commanders shall take all measures to ensure positive identification of aerodrome/runways such as:
• Strict adherence to standard approach procedures using the available instrument landing aids, regardless of weather conditions, down to the final stages of the approach. No short cuts shall be attempted which would entail loss of radio navigational guidance;
• When conducting a radar-vectored approach a cross-check using available radio aids shall be made to determine whether the runway ahead is the correct one;
• When conducting an approach subject to maintaining VMC or a visual approach the pilot shall be thoroughly familiar with the aerodrome and the surrounding terrain, and ceiling and visibility shall be such that positive identification of the aerodrome/runway is possible without difficulty. Available navigation aids shall be used to the fullest extent.
Descent to Prescribed Altitudes during Approach
The altitudes prescribed in instrument approach procedures shall be strictly adhered to. Descent to the next lower altitude prescribed in a procedure shall only be made after passing the relevant fix and provided the aeroplane is following the track specified in the procedure.
Descent below relevant minimum sector altitude (MSA) is not allowed unless aeroplane is:
• Being radar vectored (respect minimum radar vectoring altitudes); or
• Established on STAR (respect minimum enroute altitudes); or
• Established for approach (consider altitudes published for relevant approach); or
• Crew has gained and is able to maintain sufficient visual references regarding terrain clearance.
An aeroplane is considered established on final approach track when:
• Within ± 5º of the final approach track in a non-precision approach; or
• Within ± ½ dot of the localizer course as shown on the raw data ILS indicator.
Stabilized Approach
Important: Each approach procedure shall be planned and executed in a manner to achieve stabilisation criteria latest at the target height.
Lowest target height is:
• Height corresponding to FAF for non-precision approaches;
• 1000 ft AGL for precision approaches;
• 1000 ft AGL for visual approach;
• 500 ft AGL for circle-to-land approach (heading stabilisation shall be achieved latest at 400 ft AGL).
Pilots shall consider performing missed approach if aeroplane is not yet stabilised at, or becomes unstabilised below target height.
An approach is stabilised when all of the following criteria are met:
• The aeroplane is on the correct flight path;
• Only minor changes in heading and pitch are required to maintain the correct flight path, except in circle-to-land approach where heading stabilisation shall be achieved latest at 400 ft AGL;
• Indicated Airspeed shall not be less than VAPP - 5 kts and not greater than VAPP + 10 kts;
• The aeroplane is in the correct landing configuration;
• Sink rate is no greater than 1000 fpm;
• The thrust is stabilized above idle, to maintain the target speed on the desired glide path;
• All briefings and checklists have been completed;
• ILS approach must be flown within ½ dot of the glide-slope and ½ dot of the localizer;
• A Low Visibility Approach must be flown within the excessive deviation limits (flashing scales).
Special approach procedures or abnormal conditions requiring deviation from the above elements of stabilised approach criteria require a specific briefing prior to commencement of the approach.
Visual Illusions
During transition from instrument approach to visual flight the pilot flying (PF) shall pay particular attention to retain the proper approach path by maintaining the stabilized attitude. Good co-operation between PF and PNF is necessary during change-over from instrument flight to flying with visual reference to the ground. When, during the progress of the final approach, visual reference is expected to be obtained, the PNF shall divide his attention between monitoring the flight instruments and lookout. When the approach lights, runway lights, or runway markings are clearly in sight and the altitude of the aeroplane with reference to the ground can be determined, PNF shall indicate to the PF where to look for visual reference (i.e. »RUNWAY 10 O’CLOCK«). PF should never allow the aeroplane’s nose to drop and should not permit the rate of descent to increase during the last part of the final approach and shortly before flare.
Flight crews shall be aware of factors and conditions that cause visual illusions and their effects, including:
• Perception of height/depth, distances and angles;
• Assessment of the aircraft’s horizontal position and glide path.
Visual Approach
A visual approach is an approach where an aeroplane on an IFR flight plan, operating clear of cloud, in sight of ground or water and having an ATC clearance to do so, deviates from the prescribed instrument approach and proceeds to the airport by visual reference.
Where no instrument approach procedure is available for the runway of intended landing, crews may proceed to establish flight in conditions suitable for a visual approach via a transition cleared by ATC. Crew may accept radar vectors to establish on final approach as a method of transitioning to the visual approach. If a full traffic pattern is flown, the downwind altitude shall be at or above 1500 ft AAL.
The visual glide path angle should normally be in the order of 2.5º to 3.0º depending on terrain clearance requirements. Once the aeroplane is established and descending on the final approach to the runway of intended landing, 360° turns and other manoeuvres for descent profile adjustment should not be performed.
Important: Visual approaches by night are not allowed.
In preparation for each landing, the Commander shall make an assessment of all relevant factors that increase risk; including wind, slope, runway surface condition, braking action, and aeroplane failures, in regard to the required runway length. The Commander must consider that runway surface conditions can degrade or improve significantly in very short periods of time dependent on precipitation, temperature, usage, and runway treatment, and could be significantly different than indicated by the last report. If conditions change between the time that this assessment is made and the time of landing, the Commander shall consider whether it would be safer to continue the landing or reassess the landing distance. The manufacturers actual (demonstrated/un-factored) landing distances used in the flight preparation phase to derive a required landing distance for dispatch, were determined by test pilots, in ideal conditions and using techniques very rarely used in line operations. Attempting to reproduce these distances in line operations, could result in an overrun. Hence the Commanders shall ensure that landing distance available (LDA) is always at least equal or higher than calculated actual landing distance (ALD) for given runway a
nd aeroplane conditions + 15% safety margin (to obtained factored distance), as recommended by FAA and EASA regulations.
Commencement and Continuation of an Approach
An instrument approach may be commenced regardless of the reported RVR/VIS but the approach shall not be continued beyond the outer marker, or equivalent position, if the reported RVR/VIS is less than the applicable landing minima. Where no outer marker or equivalent position exists, the Commander shall make the decision to continue or abandon the approach before descending below 1.000 ft AAL on the final approach segment. If, after passing the outer marker or equivalent position depicted on the Instrument Approach Chart, the reported RVR/VIS falls below the applicable minimum, the approach may be continued to DA(H) or MDA. A pilot may continue the approach below DA(H) or MDA and the landing may be completed provided that the required visual reference is established at the DA(H) or MDA and is maintained.
Where the State Approach Ban is more restrictive, the published State Approach Ban applies (refer to OM Part C).
Note: The equivalent position can be established by means of a DME, NDB or VOR or any other fix that independently establishes the position of the aeroplane, if published on the instrument approach chart. If none of the above is available then it is 1.000 ft AAL.
Positive Identification of Aerodromes
At certain locations the proximity of adjacent aerodromes, the presence of multiple runways, or the proximity of highways paralleling a runway, may create confusion and result in a landing at the wrong aerodrome or on the wrong runway, especially in darkness or conditions of reduced visibility. In order to preclude such an incident which may have serious consequences, Commanders shall take all measures to ensure positive identification of aerodrome/runways such as:
• Strict adherence to standard approach procedures using the available instrument landing aids, regardless of weather conditions, down to the final stages of the approach. No short cuts shall be attempted which would entail loss of radio navigational guidance;
• When conducting a radar-vectored approach a cross-check using available radio aids shall be made to determine whether the runway ahead is the correct one;
• When conducting an approach subject to maintaining VMC or a visual approach the pilot shall be thoroughly familiar with the aerodrome and the surrounding terrain, and ceiling and visibility shall be such that positive identification of the aerodrome/runway is possible without difficulty. Available navigation aids shall be used to the fullest extent.
Descent to Prescribed Altitudes during Approach
The altitudes prescribed in instrument approach procedures shall be strictly adhered to. Descent to the next lower altitude prescribed in a procedure shall only be made after passing the relevant fix and provided the aeroplane is following the track specified in the procedure.
Descent below relevant minimum sector altitude (MSA) is not allowed unless aeroplane is:
• Being radar vectored (respect minimum radar vectoring altitudes); or
• Established on STAR (respect minimum enroute altitudes); or
• Established for approach (consider altitudes published for relevant approach); or
• Crew has gained and is able to maintain sufficient visual references regarding terrain clearance.
An aeroplane is considered established on final approach track when:
• Within ± 5º of the final approach track in a non-precision approach; or
• Within ± ½ dot of the localizer course as shown on the raw data ILS indicator.
Stabilized Approach
Important: Each approach procedure shall be planned and executed in a manner to achieve stabilisation criteria latest at the target height.
Lowest target height is:
• Height corresponding to FAF for non-precision approaches;
• 1000 ft AGL for precision approaches;
• 1000 ft AGL for visual approach;
• 500 ft AGL for circle-to-land approach (heading stabilisation shall be achieved latest at 400 ft AGL).
Pilots shall consider performing missed approach if aeroplane is not yet stabilised at, or becomes unstabilised below target height.
An approach is stabilised when all of the following criteria are met:
• The aeroplane is on the correct flight path;
• Only minor changes in heading and pitch are required to maintain the correct flight path, except in circle-to-land approach where heading stabilisation shall be achieved latest at 400 ft AGL;
• Indicated Airspeed shall not be less than VAPP - 5 kts and not greater than VAPP + 10 kts;
• The aeroplane is in the correct landing configuration;
• Sink rate is no greater than 1000 fpm;
• The thrust is stabilized above idle, to maintain the target speed on the desired glide path;
• All briefings and checklists have been completed;
• ILS approach must be flown within ½ dot of the glide-slope and ½ dot of the localizer;
• A Low Visibility Approach must be flown within the excessive deviation limits (flashing scales).
Special approach procedures or abnormal conditions requiring deviation from the above elements of stabilised approach criteria require a specific briefing prior to commencement of the approach.
Visual Illusions
During transition from instrument approach to visual flight the pilot flying (PF) shall pay particular attention to retain the proper approach path by maintaining the stabilized attitude. Good co-operation between PF and PNF is necessary during change-over from instrument flight to flying with visual reference to the ground. When, during the progress of the final approach, visual reference is expected to be obtained, the PNF shall divide his attention between monitoring the flight instruments and lookout. When the approach lights, runway lights, or runway markings are clearly in sight and the altitude of the aeroplane with reference to the ground can be determined, PNF shall indicate to the PF where to look for visual reference (i.e. »RUNWAY 10 O’CLOCK«). PF should never allow the aeroplane’s nose to drop and should not permit the rate of descent to increase during the last part of the final approach and shortly before flare.
Flight crews shall be aware of factors and conditions that cause visual illusions and their effects, including:
• Perception of height/depth, distances and angles;
• Assessment of the aircraft’s horizontal position and glide path.
Visual Approach
A visual approach is an approach where an aeroplane on an IFR flight plan, operating clear of cloud, in sight of ground or water and having an ATC clearance to do so, deviates from the prescribed instrument approach and proceeds to the airport by visual reference.
Where no instrument approach procedure is available for the runway of intended landing, crews may proceed to establish flight in conditions suitable for a visual approach via a transition cleared by ATC. Crew may accept radar vectors to establish on final approach as a method of transitioning to the visual approach. If a full traffic pattern is flown, the downwind altitude shall be at or above 1500 ft AAL.
The visual glide path angle should normally be in the order of 2.5º to 3.0º depending on terrain clearance requirements. Once the aeroplane is established and descending on the final approach to the runway of intended landing, 360° turns and other manoeuvres for descent profile adjustment should not be performed.
Important: Visual approaches by night are not allowed.
Landing Distance Assessment in Flight
Reviewed by Aviation Lesson
on
2:28 PM
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Reviewed by Aviation Lesson
on
2:28 PM
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